Peer instruction: An evaluation of its theory, application, and contribution

Author, Year, Publisher	Subject	Cognitive Domain	Affective Domain	Results
Rao, S. P., & DiCarlo, S. E. (2000). Peer instruction improves performance on quizzes. Advance in Physiology Education, 24, 51-55.	Medical Physiology	x	-	They reported that "pausing three to four times during a 50-min class to allow discussion of concepts enhanced the students level of understanding and ability to synthesize and integrate material" (p.51).
Crouch, C. H., & Mazur, E. (2001). Peer instruction: Ten years of experience and results. American Journal of Physics, 69, 970-977.	Calculus-and Algebra-based Introductory Physics	x	x	PI improved both conceptual reasoning skills and quantitative problem solving performance of the students and PI enhanced the motivation of the students.
Pilzer. S. (2001). Peer instruction in physics and mathematics. Primus, XI(2),185-192.	Calculus	x	-	The students showed a significant improvement in reasoning skills.
Fagen, A. P., Crouch, C. H., & Mazur, E. (2002). Peer instruction: Results from a range of classroom. The Physics Teacher, 40, 206-209.	Physics	x		PI improved learning gains of the students. More than 300 instructors considered their implementation of PI to be successful.
Lenaerts, J., Wieme, W., & Zele, E. V. (2003). Peer instruction: A case study for an introductory magnetism course. European Journal of Physics, 24, 7-14.	Introductory Physics	x	x	PI enhanced problem solving skills, conceptual learning of engineering students; fostered the confidence of the students; encouraged class participants of the students.
Nicol, D, J., & Boyle, J. T. (2003). Peer instruction versus class-wide discussion in large classes: A comparison of two interaction methods in the wired classroom. Studies in Higher Education, 28(4), 458-473.	Engineering Mechanic	x	x	PI used in the wired classroom helped students to improve their understanding of difficult concepts and increased their motivation.
Cortright, R. N., Collins, H. L., & DiCarlo, S. E. (2005). Peer instruction enhanced meaningful learning: Ability to solve novel problems. Advance in Physiology Education, 29, 107-111.	Exercise Physiology	x	x	PI enhanced meaningful learning and ability towards problem solving of the students and PI changed attitude of the students positively.
James, M. C. (2006). The effect of grading incentive on student discourse in peer instruction. American Journal of Physics, 74(8), 689-691.	Astronomy	x	-	They reported that "conversation partners with greater knowledge tended to dominate peer discussion and partner with less knowledge were more passive" (p.689). Also "students engaged in a more even examination of ideas from both partner" (p.689).
Lorenzo, M., Crouch, C. H., & Mazur, E. (2006). Reducing the gender in the physics classroom. American Journal of Physics, 74(2), 118-122.	Introductory Calculus-based Physics	x	-	Interactive engagement methods reduced the gender gap in physics performance. Female students' performance was higher than male students' performance.
Author, Year, Publisher	Subject	Cognitive Domain	Affective Domain	Results
McCreary, C. L., Golde, M. F., & Koeske, R. (2006). Peer instruction in the general chemistry laboratory: Assessment of student learning. Journal of Chemical Education, 83(5), 804- 810.	Chemistry	x	-	PI enhanced learning of the students in the Workshop labs.
McConnell, D. A., Steer, D. N., Owens, K. D., Knott, J. R., Horn, S. V., Borowski, W., Dick, J., Foos, A., Malone, M., McGrew, H., Greer, L., & Heaney, P. J (2006). Using conceptests to assess and improve student conceptual understanding in introductory geoscience course. Journal of Geoscience Education, 54(1), 61–68.	Geology	x	x	PI increased achievement attendance, and satisfaction of the students.
Giuliodori, M, J., Lujan, H., & DiCarlo, S. E. (2006). Peer instruction enhanced student performance on qualitative problem-solving questions. Advance in Physiology Education, 30, 168-173.	Physiology	x	x	PI increased the performance of students on qualitative problem solving and fostered the perceptions/attitudes of the students.
Crouch, C. H., Watkins, J., Fagen, A.P., & Mazur, E. (2007). Peer instruction: Engaging students one-on-one, all at once, in Research-Based Reform of University Physics, edited by E. F. Redish and P. J. Cooney American Association of Physics Teachers, College Park, MD, 2007, Reviews in PER, 1(1), http://www.compadre.org/portal/items/detail.cfm?ID=4990&Attached=1	Introductory Physics	x	x	PI improved learning of the students, increased satisfaction of students and instructors
Lasry, N., Mazur, E., & Watkins, J. (2008). Peer instruction: From Harvard to the two-year college. American Journal of Physics, 76(11), 1066-1069.	Physics	x	-	PI increased conceptual learning and problem solving skills of the college and university students. Both higher and lower background-knowledge students benefited from PI.
Lasry, N. (2008). Clickers or flashcards: Is there really a difference? The Physics Teacher, 46, 242-244.	Algebra-based Mechanic	x	-	"From a teaching perspective, clickers have a number of very practical advantages", "From a learning perspective, using PI with clickers does not provide any significant learning advantage" (p.46).
Cummings, K., & Roberts, S. G. (2008). A study of peer instruction methods with high school physics students. American Institute of Physics Conference Proceedings 1064, 103-106.	Algebra-based Introductory Physics	x	-	The results showed a strong correlation between use of PI and improved student conceptual understanding.
Lasry, N., Charles, E. Whittaker, C., & Lautman, M. (2009). When talking is better than staying quiet. Physics Education Research Conference, 1179, 181-184.	Algebra-based Introductory Physics	x	-	PI increased peer discussion between peers.
Butchart, S., Handfield, T., & Restall, G. (2009). Using peer instruction to teach philosophy, logic, and critical thinking. Teaching Philosophy, 32, 1–40.	Philosophy	x	x	PI increased interaction, attention and critical thinking skills of the students.
Author, Year, Publisher	Subject	Cognitive Domain	Affective Domain	Results
Smith. M. K., Wood, W. B., Adams, W. K., Wieman, C., Knight, J. K., Guild, N., & Su, T. T. (2009). Why peer discussion improves student performance on in-class concept questions. Science, 323, 122-124.	Genetic	x	-	Peer discussion increased students' conceptual understanding.
Lucas, A. (2009). Using peer instruction and i-clickers to enhance student participation in calculus. Problems, Resources, and Issues in Mathematics Undergraduate Studies, 19(3), 219-231.	Calculus	x	x	PI together with clicker were very effective in enhancing student engagement and learning. The students felt safe to make mistakes and motivated to get clicker scores by participating.
Bruck, A. D., & Towns, M. H. (2009). Analysis of classroom response system questions via four lenses in a general chemistry course. Chemistry Education Research and Practice,10(4), 291-295.	Chemistry	x	-	Lower order cognitive skill questions decreased during peer discussion while higher order cognitive skill questions increased by instructors.
Turpen, C., & Finkelstein N. D. (2009). Not all interactive engagement is the same: Variations in physics professors' implementation of peer instruction. Physical Review Special Topics - Physics Education Research, 5(020101),1-18.	Introductory Physics	-	-	"Case studies of six professors demonstrate how these variations in classroom practices, in aggregate, create difference classroom norms, such as the relative emphasis on student sense-making vs answering making during Peer Instruction" (p. 1).
Perez, K. E., Strauss, E. A., Downey, N., Galbraith, A., Jeanne, R., & Cooper, S. (2010). Does displaying the class results affect student discussion during peer instruction? CBE-Life Sciences Education, 9,133-140.	Introductory Biology	x	-	The study indicated that observing the most common response can bias a student’s second vote on a question and may be misinterpreted as an increase in performance due to student discussion alone.
Mazur, E., & Watkins, J. (2010). Just-in-time teaching and peer instruction. In S. P. Simkins &M. H. Maier (Eds.), Just-in-time teaching: Across the disciplines, across the academy (pp. 39-62). Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing.	Introductory Physics	x	-	JITT and PI worked well together to advance and deepen student understanding and helped the instructor make better use of class time.
Mora, G. (2010). Peer instruction and lecture tutorials equally improve student learning in introductory geology classes. Journal of Geoscience Education, 58(5), 286-296.	Introductory Physical Geology	x	-	PI and lecture tutorials provided statistically significant cognitive knowledge and understanding gains.
Suppapittayaporn, D., Emarat, N., & Arayathanitkul, K. (2010). The effectiveness of peer instruction and structures inquiry on conceptual understanding of force and motion: A case study from Thailand. Research in Science & Technological Education, 28 (1), 63-79.	Physics	x	-	Peer instruction method with structured inquiry was more effective than traditional instruction in promoting students' conceptual change.
Author, Year, Publisher	Subject	Cognitive Domain	Affective Domain	Results
Pollock, S. J., Stephanie, V. C., Dubson, M., Perkins, K. K. (2010). The use of concept tests and peer instruction in upper-division physics. Physics Education Research Conference 2010, 1289, 261-264, Portland, Oregon.	Physics	x	-	The using of concept tests and PI increased performance of the students on targeted conceptual post-tests.
Kalman, C. S., Milner-Bolotin, M., & Antimirova, T. (2010). Comparison of the effectiveness of collaborative groups and peer instruction in a large introductory physics course for science majors. Canadian Journal of Physics, 88, 325–332.	Physics	x	-	Collaborative group approach was more effective on conceptual understanding of the students than modified peer instruction. The effectiveness of both approaches did not depend on instructors' experience as long as they follow the same procedures.
Turpen, C., & Finkelstein, N. D. (2010). The construction of different classroom norms during Peer Instruction: Students perceive differences. Physical Review Special Topics-Physics Education Research, 6(020123), 1-22.	Introductory Physics	-	x	They found "significant correspondence between the researchers' interpretations and students' perceptions of Peer Instruction in these environments" (p.1). Besides they revealed that "variation in faculty practices can set up what students perceive as discernibly different norms" (p.1).
Gok, T. (2011). Using the classroom response system to enhance students’ learning and classroom interactivity. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 45, 49-68.	Physics	x	x	PI in combination with clicker increased conceptual learning of the students. PI enhanced the interaction between students and instructor.
Porter, L., Lee, C. B., Simon, B., & Zingaro, D. (2011). Peer instruction: Do students really learn from peer discussion in computing? ICER'11, Providence, Rhode Island, USA.	Computing	x	-	Peer discussion improved the performance of the students.
Brooks, B. B. J., & Koretsky, M. D. M. (2011). The influence of group discussion on students responses and confidence during peer instruction. Journal of Chemical Education, 88(11), 1477-1484.	Chemical Thermodynamics	x	x	PI positively affected thinking and confidence of the students.
Smith, M. K., Wood, W. B., Krauter, K., & Knight, J. K. (2011). Combining peer discussion with instructor explanation increases student learning from in-class concept questions. CBE-Life Sciences Education, 10, 55-63.	Genetic	x	-	The combination of peer discussion with instructor explanation increased average performance of the students considerably when compared with either alone.
Schmidt, B. (2011). Teaching engineering dynamics by use of peer instruction supported by an audience response system. European Journal of Engineering Education, 36(5), 413–423.	Introductory Engineering Dynamic	x	x	The using of PI supported by an classroom response system increased learning outcome, especially conceptual learning. The students were very satisfied with these combination.
Author, Year, Publisher	Subject	Cognitive Domain	Affective Domain	Results
Yaoyuneyong, G., & Thornton, A. (2011). Combining peer instruction and audience response systems to enhance academic performance, facilitate active learning and promote peer-assisted learning communalities. International Journal of Fashion Design, Technology and Education, 4(2), 127-139.	Textile	x	x	They revealed that the examination achievements and final scores of the students in the experimental group were higher than those of the students in the control group, but the performance of the students in the control group on class project was better than that of students in the experimental group. There was not any statistically significant difference between the quiz performances of the two groups. PI improved the perception of the students.
Nielsen, K. L., Hansen-Nygard, G., & Stav, J. B. (2012). Investigating peer instruction: How the initial voting session affects students' experiences of group discussion. International Scholarly Research Network, 2012(290157), 1-8.	Introductory Physics	-	x	"The students emphasize the individual thinking period as crucial for constructing explanations, argumentation, and participation during discussions, and hence for facilitating learning. However, displaying the results from the initial vote can be devastating for the quality of the discussions, especially when there is a clear majority for a specific alternative" (p.1).
Morgan, J. T., & Wakefield, C. (2012). Who benefits from peer conversation? Examining correlations of clicker question correctness and course performance. Journal of College Science Teaching, 41(5), 51-56.	Physics	x	-	The study was reported there was not any relationship between peer conversation and students' performance. But peer conversation enhanced the interactivity between peers.
Gok, T. (2012a). The impact of peer instruction on college students’ beliefs about physics and conceptual understanding of electricity and magnetism. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 10, 417-436.	Physics	x	x	PI improved conceptual understanding, problem solving performance of the students. PI changed beliefs about physics and physics learning of the students positively.
Gok, T. (2012b). The effects of peer instruction on students’ conceptual learning and motivation. Asia-Pacific Forum on Science Learning and Teaching, 13(1), 1-17.	Physics	x	x	PI increased conceptual learning of the students. But, PI did not influence motivation of the students instructed with PI and TI.
Jones, M. E., Antonenkot, P. D., & Greenwood, C. M. (2012). The impact of collaborative and individualized student response system strategies on learner motivation, metacognition, and knowledge transfer. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 28, 477–487.	Entomology	x	x	The motivation and confidence of the students including peer instruction group and individualized response group revealed a decrease . The regulation of cognition of female students in PI group and male students in IR group improved. " The PI group scored significantly higher on the test of near transfer than the IR group" (p.477).
Author, Year, Publisher	Subject	Cognitive Domain	Affective Domain	Results
Lindstrom, C., & Schell, J. (2013). Leveraging technology to enhance evidence-based pedagogy: A case study of peer instruction in Norway. Actas del VI Simposio: Las Sociedades ante el reto digital. Kapittel 1. 7-18.	Science	x	x	PI in combination with clickers increased the performance of the students. Students and were satisfied with PI and clickers.
Miller-Young, J. (2013). Using peer instruction pedagogy for teaching dynamics: Lessons learned from pre-class reading quizzes. Proceedings of the Canadian Engineering Education Association (CEEA13), QC: Montreal, Canada.	Dynamics	x	x	PI developed the learning and performance of the higher, medium, and low achieving students. PI positively changed the perception of the students.
Simon, B., Esper, S., Porter, L., & Cutts, Q. (2013). Student experience in a student-centered peer instruction classroom. ICER'13, 129-136. San Diego, California, USA.	Computer Science	x	x	The students were very active on arguing, discussing, explaining with their peers in PI instead of listening and taking notes in their standard courses. PI improved meta-cognitive skills, learning behaviors, perceptions, attendance and better attentiveness of the students towards courses in student-centered learning environments.
Durmont, A. (2013). Peer instruction to learn English. Conference Processing of ICT for Language Learning, 6th Conference Edition, Florence, Italy.	English	x	x	PI fostered critical thinking and writing skills. PI improved self-esteem, motivation, and satisfaction of the students.
Knight, J. K., Wise, S. B., & Southard, K. M. (2013). Understanding clicker discussions: Student reasoning and the impact of instructional cues. CBE Life Sciences Education, 12(4), 645-654.	Biology	x	-	They reported that "the majority of student discussions included exchanges of reasoning that used evidence and that many such exchanges resulted in students achieving the correct answer. Students also had discussions in which ideas were exchanged, but the correct answer not achieved. Importantly, instructor prompts that asked students to use reasoning resulted in significantly more discussions containing reasoning connected to evidence than without such prompts" (p.645).
Harvey, N. C. (2013). The effects of peer instruction on ninth grade students' conceptual understanding of forces and motion. Unpublished master’s thesis, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.	Physics	x	x	The study reported that there was not a clear positive advantage in learning outcomes of PI according to TI in all of the classes. The students liked to see PI in more classes.
Trent, K. S. (2013). The effects of peer instruction technique think-pair-share on students’ performance in chemistry. Unpublished master’s thesis, Nicholls State University, Thibodaux, LA.	Chemistry	x	-	The difference in performance and learning gain of the students between interactive engagement and traditional instruction was not found statistically significant.
Author, Year, Publisher	Subject	Cognitive Domain	Affective Domain	Results
Spacco, J., Parris, J., & Simon, B. (2013). How we teach impacts student learning: Peer instruction vs. lecture in CS0. SIGCSE 2013, CO: Denver, USA.	Computer Science	x	-	Examination performance of the students instructed with PI was averagely 5.7% higher than examination performance of the students instructed with TI. They reported that there was not significant interactions among gender and grade or class status and grade.
Schell, J., Lukoff, B., & Mazur, E. (2013). Catalyzing learner engagement using cutting-edge response systems in higher education. In Wankel, C., & Blessinger, P. (Eds.) In Increasing Student Engagement and Retention Using Classroom Technologies Classroom Response Systems and Mediated Discourse Technologies Vol. 6, pp. 233-261, Bingley, UK: Emerald Publishing Group.	Physics	x	x	The usage of Learning Catalytics increased performance and engagement of the students.
Atasoy, S., Ergin, S., & Sen, A. I (2014). The effects of peer instruction method on attitudes of 9th grade students towards physics course. Eurasian Journal of Physics and Chemistry Education. 6(1), 88-98.	Physics	-	x	PI was effective on "appreciating the value of physics course" and "expectations about physics course".
Nishimura, R., & Nitta, H. (2014). A peer-instruction-based physics lecture at high school in Japan. Proceedings of the 12th Asia Pacific Physics Conference, 1(017030), 1-4.	Physics	x	-	The reflection effects of PI was helpful in monitoring of students' understanding and it was efficient to change/modify the lesson plans for the instructors.
Gok, T. (2014). Peer instruction in the physics classroom: Effects on gender difference performance, conceptual learning, and problem solving. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 13(6), 776-788.	Physics	x	x	The difference in conceptual learning between female and male students was not found statistically significant. But male students' problem solving performance was higher than female students' problem solving performance. PI changed affective ideas of the students positively.
Zingaro, D., & Porter, L. (2014). Peer instruction in computing: The value of instructor intervention. Computer & Education, 71, 87–96.	Computer Science	x	-	The results reported that "the value of the instructor-led classwide discussion was evident in increased students performance over peer-discussion alone" (p.87).
Miller, K., Lasry, N., Lukoff, B., Schell, J., & Mazur, E. (2014). Conceptual question response times in peer instruction classroom. Physical Review Special Topics-Physics Education Research, 10(020113), 1-6.	Introductory Physics	x	x	Response time of the students for correct answers was significantly faster than response time of the students for incorrect answers on concept test questions both before and after peer discussion. The students constructed logical connections between existing knowledge and new constructing information. They had higher self-efficacy with faster response times. there was not gender difference in response rate on concept test questions.
Author, Year, Publisher	Subject	Cognitive Domain	Affective Domain	Results
Zingaro, D. (2014). Peer instruction contributed to self-efficacy in CS1. SIGCSE'14, 373-378, Atlanta, GA, USA.	Computer Science	x	x	PI increased exam scores and self efficacy of the students.
Gok, T. (2015). An investigation of students’ performance after peer instruction with stepwise problem-solving strategies. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 13, 561-582.	Physics	x	x	PI developed the using of problem solving strategy steps of the students on concept test questions, mid-term and final examinations, and homework assignments. PI changed the perspective of the students toward problem solving affirmatively.
Michinov, N., Morice, J., & Ferriéres, V. (2015). A step further in peer instruction: Using the stepladder technique to improve learning. Computers & Education, 91, 1-13.	Chemistry	x	x	"Results that learning gains were greatest in the Stepladder PI group, and that this effect was mainly observed for difficult questions" (p.90). The satisfaction of students instructed with Stepladder PI was higher than classic PI and individual instruction.
Morice, J., Michinov, N., Delaval, M., Sideridou, A., & Ferriéres, V. (2015). Comparing the effectiveness of peer instruction to individual learning during a chromatography course. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 31, 722-733.	Chromatography	x	x	Peer instruction enhanced subjective benefits (engaging, learning transfer, motivation, regulation of cognition, satisfying, etc.), but it failed to illustrate a greater learning gain. Besides, "students perceived the peer instruction method as being more satisfying, engaging and useful than the individual learning method"(p.722).
Miller, K., Schell, J., Ho, A., Lukoff, B., & Mazur, E. (2015). Response switching and self-efficacy in peer instruction classrooms. Physical Review Special Topics-Physics Education Research, 11(010104), 1-8.	Introductory Physics	x	x	They reported the correlations between response switching and academic self-efficacy, and the correlations between switching and the difficulty of the questions.
Edwards, B. I., Aris, B., Shukor, N. A., & Mohammed, H. (2015). Using response system through voting in peer instruction for learning sustainability. Jurnal Teknologi, 77(13), 147-157.	Pedagogy	x	x	The performance, interest, motivation and engagement of the students by using PI in combination with clickers increased.
Wang, S., & Murota, M. (2016). Possibilities and limitations of integrating peer instruction into technical creativity education. Instructional Science, 44, 501-525.	ICT	x	-	Peer discussion was effective in improving all levels of students' creative performances.
Gok, T., & Gok, O. (2016). Peer instruction in chemistry education: Assessment of students' learning strategies, conceptual learning, and problem solving. Asia-Pacific Forum on Science Learning and Teaching, 17(1), 1-21.	Chemistry	x	x	PI fostered learning strategies, conceptual learning, and problem solving performance. PI positively changed the attitude and perception of the students toward course.
Author, Year, Publisher	Subject	Cognitive Domain	Affective Domain	Results
Antwi, V., Raheem, K., & Aboagye, K. (2016). The impact of peer instruction on students' conceptual understanding in mechanics in central region of Ghana. European Journal of Research and Reflection in Educational Sciences, 4(9), 54-69.	Physics	x	x	PI improved the conceptual understanding and problem solving skills of the students. PI positively effected on attitude of the students.
Lasry, N., Charles, E., & Whittaker, C. (2016). Effective variations of peer instruction: The effects of peer discussions, committing to an answer, and reaching a consensus. American Journal of Physics, 84(8), 639-645.	Physics	x	x	All PI groups' conceptual learning (CU) and traditional problem solving performance (TPSP) was found higher than lecture-based instruction. They revealed that the effects of PI on CU TPSP, attitude, and expectations of the students were not dependent on the instructors.
Nielsen, K. L., Hansen, G., & Stav, J. B. (2016). How the initial thinking period affects student argumentation during peer instruction: Students' experiences versus observations. Studies in Higher Education, 41(1), 124-138.	Introductory Physics	x	x	"The initial thinking period was found to increase argumentation time during discussion, consistent with students' own experiences. However, while students felt that the initial thinking period increased participation and contribution of ideas among all group members" (p.124).
Sayer, R., Marshman, E., & Singh, C. (2016a). Case study evaluating just-in-time-teaching and peer instruction using clickers in a quantum mechanics course. Physical Review Physics Education Research, 12(020133), 1-23.	Quantum Mechanic	x	-	Asking questions after the lecture enhanced student performance compared to reading quizzes. After group discussion following individual responses, the performance of the students on the clicker questions also increased.
Sayer, R., Marshman, E., & Singh, C. (2016b). The impact of peer interaction on the responses to clicker questions in an upper-level quantum mechanics course. Proceedings of the 2016 Physics Education Research Conference, 304-307 CA: Sacramento, US.	Quantum Mechanics	x	-	The performance on the clicker questions was improved after interaction with peers following individual clicker responses.
Al- Hebaishi, S. M. (2017). The effect of peer instruction method on pre-service teachers’ conceptual comprehension of methodology course. Journal of Education and Learning, 6(3), 70-82.	Teaching Methodology	x	x	PI enhanced conceptual comprehension and was efficient on attitude of the students positively.
Zhang, P., Ding, L., & Mazur, E. (2017). Peer instruction in introductory physics: A method to bring about positive changes in students’ attitudes and beliefs. Physical Review Physics Education Research, 113(010104), 1-9.	Physics	-	x	The belief and attitude of the students on physics and physics learning enhanced in peer instruction groups of the research. The results of the fixed group were more positive relative to the results of the variable groups. Besides, female students in the peer instruction groups were higher the belief and attitude about physics learning than male students.