A teacher's conceptions and practices of active learning in science teaching amid large scale curriculum reforms

Table 2: Semi-structured Core Interview Questions

Core questions

1. What is your understanding of active learning and/or its strategies in science teaching?
2. What specific methods would you use to promote active learning among learners in your teaching?
3. What roles do both the teacher and learner play in active learning teaching approaches and/or strategies?
4. What types of activities do you normally engage in if any with your learners for active learning purposes and why?
5. How do you engage learners in activities related to particular active learning techniques or strategies?

Table 3: Categorisation matrix

THEME 1: CONCEPTIONS OF ACTIVE LEARNING (CAL)
EVALUATION CRITERIA Representation of concepts, terms, principles etc. relating to or used in AL	COMPONENTS OF THE TEACHER’S CONCEPTION
CAL 1. CONCEPTS Concepts are tools that “allow us to make sense of and organise the world…” Yee (2019, p.1258)
Learner-centered teaching Teachers engage learners and motivate them with the aim to develop their skills, reflection and autonomy through a continuous process(Weimer, 2013). Learning task engagement The teacher creates environments in which learners engage in their own knowledge construction processes. This process is continuously monitored and supported by the teacher as a facilitator (Milistetd et.al., 2019). Active learning Active learning provides sufficient opportunities for learners to participate and to process and apply information they have learned (Chi & Wylie, 2014). .	“…placing learners in the positions of leading their own knowledge acquisition” [CAL 1-a]. “…learners use learning material to analyse and solve problems through critical thinking…” [CAL1-b]. “…providing many opportunities for exploring and formulating concepts…” [CAL 1-c].
CAL 2. TEACHING BELIEFS i.e. attitudes, values, propositions, preferences Beliefs can influence peoples’ thoughts and behaviour about something e.g. active learning
Attitude It is the responsibility of teacher to create learning environments and facilitate learning through structured activities(Weimer, 2013). Affect In teaching interactions, the teacher should be aware of differences in learners’ mindfulness guide them to engage in their learning as facilitator(Weiss & Helskog, 2020). Social adaptation Learners adapt and participate differently in social groupings. The teacher must maximise the nature of their groupings for learning through continuous interventions(Webb, Franke, Ing, Turrou, Johnson, Zimmerman, 2019). Proposition (i)The teacher is responsible for creating learning opportunities for learners. The teacher must possesses the necessary knowledge and skills(Darling-Hammond, 2017). (ii)Without adequate resources and/or time, the teacher must be creative to manage his/her responsibilities (Adams, 2019). (iii)On the basis of learners’ prior knowledge, the teacher must explain his strategies to them. That is, his learners must know the purpose of learning activities to cope with the learning material(Lin & Huang, 2013). (iv)The teachers’ created learning opportunities must be informed by learners’ readiness to engage in the activities. Activities must be within the cognitive level of learners as learners are responsible for structuring their knowledge for learning(Thorman & Fidalgo, 2014).	“…learners are not interested in learning through active learning…" [CAL 2-a]. “…learners have sluggish attitude towards active learning…” [CAL 2-b]. “…learners do not enjoy researching and problem solving…” [CAL 2-c]. (i) Perceives teachers to find enacting active learning difficult [CAL 2-d (i)]. (ii)Perceives active learning to be time consuming and resource driven [CAL 2-d (ii)]. (iii)Perceives learners as not coping with active learning activities [CAL 2-d(iii)]. (iv)Perceives active learning as cognitively demanding [CAL2-d(iv)].
CAL 3. MEANINGS The meanings constructed about concepts or principles relating to AL
Personal constructivism Learners personally construct and reconstruct meanings and understandings from their experiences of learning content and from their teachers’ contributions(Bodner, 1986). Learners are active participants in their own learning processes. The teacher only guides and/or facilitates the learning processes(Thorman & Fidalgo, 2014).	Views the learner as forming personal concepts of the subject matter [CAL3-a]. Views the learner as learning with minimal assistance from the teacher [CAL 3-b].
Use of different approaches and/or techniques Different teaching approaches may be used in active learning activities. However, their processes must be to create opportunities that allow learners to construct their own understandings in learning(Triyanto, 2019). The teachers’ role should be that of a guide and facilitator of learning through asking of questions and monitoring learning processes(Mitchell et.al. 2017).	The teacher uses different teaching methods in facilitating learning (e.g. lecturing, drilling, discovery, practical work) [CAL 3-c]. The teacher facilitates learning [CAL 3-d].
Associated Theories and Methods (ATM)	Examples of meanings or their units
ATM 1. Theories associated/not associated with and/or applied in AL
Constructivism The constructivist view of learning is that learning is a product of knowledge construction from prior knowledge with current information from mental processes of an individual (Jemberie, 2021). Behaviorism Behaviorism is applied in the classroom through direct teaching. Learning occurs a stimulus that invites a response. Thus learning is transmitted from facts, drills and practical demonstrations and reinforced through repetitions(Bush, 2006).	The learner is viewed as forming personal concepts of the subject matter [ATM1-a]. Learning focuses on memorisation for passing examination [ATM1-b].
ATM 2. Methods associated/not associated with and/or applied in AL
Discovery learning Discovery learning enhances learners’ abilities to solve problems and learners interact with the environment around them to discover solutions(Simamora, Saragih, Hasratuddin, 2019). Practical work Practical work activities provide learners with opportunities to apply acquired knowledge and/or skills. (Kapici et.al. 2019). Drilling Drilling in the context of preparing for examination cannot be classified as active learning. However, if it is ‘deliberate practice’, it is understandable. Deliberate practice improves knowledge structures for future development of new skills (e.g. problem-solving skills) (Ericsson, 2014).	Different methods are used including discovery learning [ATM2-a] and Practical work [ATM2-b]. Different methods are used including ‘drilling’ for examination [ATM2-c].
THEME 2: PRACTICES IN ACTIVE LEARNING TEACHING OF SCIENCE (PAT)
EVALUATION REFERENCE	MEANING OR THEIR UNITS FROM PRACTICES
PAT 1. Creating opportunities for learning to occur (Fink, 2013)
1a Creating small groups Groups are formed to help learners construct their collective understanding on the subject matter. The teacher should form groups to solve a problem and/or interpret the meaning of their experiences in class.	1a. Teacher involves learners in group discussions after watching simulations a particular topic [PAT1-1a].
1b.Engaging learners in authentic dialogue Learning occurs in different ways. The teacher can ask learners to complete a project with assistance from among themselves and/or with external experts or sources.	1b. Not evident/apparent in practice [PAT1-lb].
1c. Learners developing learning portfolios Learner reflection on or about their learning is important for the teachers’ monitoring. The teacher should also encourage learners have records of their views in journals.	1c. Not evident/apparent in practice [PAT 1-1c].
1d. Observing learners learning activities The teacher should actively monitor learners engaged in a learning activity with a view to always be at hand to understand their learning processes for feedback purposes.	1d. The teacher introduces a practical work activity after a theoretical explanation of important concepts with minimal assistance to the learners [PAT1-1d].
1e. Learner engaging in and doing activities The teacher should at some stage of facilitating learning allow learners to apply their learned knowledge and skills in different ways. That is physically or through problem solving.	1e. The teacher engages learners in class presentations with and for their peers as part of active facilitation of learning [PAT1e-a].
PAT 2. Encouraging interaction among learners and the teacher
2a. Dialogue with Self. The teacher creates opportunities for learners to think reflectively about the topic of the day from an activity. The teacher can enhance this reflective thinking by asking questions or asking learners to write about the learning of the topic (e.g. after the simulation).	2a. Teacher engages learners in group discussions after watching simulations of a particular topic [PAT 2-2a].
2b. Dialogue with Others The teacher creates a dynamic and active engagement by involving learners in a dialogue. This may be among learners themselves or with an expert on the topical issue relevant to the problem under discussion in their learning.	2b. The teacher engages learners in class presentations with and for their peers as part of active facilitation of learning [PAT2-2b].
2c. Observation The teacher engages learners to watch or listen to doing/demonstrating something (e.g. simulation) relevant to what they are learning as part of their curriculum topic.	2c. The teacher engages learners in group discussions after watching simulations of a particular topic [PAT2-2c].
PAT 3. Create a Dialectic Between learner Experience and Dialogue
3a. Creating new experiences through doing or observing to generate dialogue.	3a. The teacher uses mixed assessment through different class activities for learners [PAT3-3a].
3b. Providing situations to create many possible meanings of experience and related insights.	3b. The teacher illustrates the application of concepts and principles through problem-solving exercises [PAT 3-3b].
3c. Creatively creating setting up an iterative dialectic of learning activities for new and rich experiences and meaningful dialogue.	3c. Not evident/apparent in practice [PAT 3-3c].