Preservice science teachers’ metaphors on the subject of genetically modified organisms

When the data were examined, it was seen that most of the participants tried to explain the idea of GMO products using such substances as hormones, medicines, and additives. In addition, they described GMO products as bigger, more puffed, smoother, or more shapeless when compared with their typical non-GMO states. These descriptions revealed that the majority of preservice teachers surveyed in this investigation held misconceptions regarding GMO. When the metaphors produced by the preservice teachers were examined, it was found that they also predominantly had negative opinions and judgements presumably due to a lack of related knowledge.

Table 2 presents the frequencies (f) and percentages (%) regarding the metaphors produced by the preservice teachers.

Table 2.Metaphors produced by the preservice teachers regarding GMOs

Metaphor	f	%	Metaphor	f	%
Tomato	5	3.33	Bottle full of alcohol	1	0.67
Poison	4	2.67	Empty can	1	0.67
Balloon	4	2.67	Empty box	1	0.67
Human	3	2	Pomegranate with no seeds in it	1	0.67
Obese person	3	2	Dependent person	1	0.67
Woman with make-up	3	2	Winter tomato	1	0.67
Virus	3	2	Decorated but empty box	1	0.67
Aesthetics	3	2	Old cheap car looking like BMW	1	0.67
Watermelon	3	2	Sweet appearance with bitter taste	1	0.67
Mobile phone made in China	2	1.33	Being poisoned	1	0.67
Two-faced person	2	1.33	Packed biscuit	1	0.67
Cancer	2	1.33	Poisonous cake	1	0.67
Plastics	2	1.33	Poisonous apple	1	0.67
Parasite	2	1.33	Person with views changed	1	0.67
Weapon	2	1.33	Nice-looking, worn-out building	1	0.67
Stale bread	2	1.33	Broken watch	1	0.67
Rotten apple	2	1.33	Tasteless onion with a beautiful appearance	1	0.67
Chameleon	2	1.33	Quicksilver	1	0.67
Leading to death	2	1.33	Microbe	1	0.67
Person with botox done	2	1.33	Artificial flower	1	0.67
Grave	1	0.67	Blow-dried hair	1	0.67
Murderers looking like foods	1	0.67	Poisonous substance	1	0.67
Illness	1	0.67	Basketball ball	1	0.67
Clostridium botulium	1	0.67	Softly-speaking bad person	1	0.67
Chemical weapon	1	0.67	Modified cheap car	1	0.67
Rotten food	1	0.67	Diamond	1	0.67
Poisonous mushroom	1	0.67	Perfect corn	1	0.67
Acid	1	0.67	Antibiotic	1	0.67
Harmful substance	1	0.67	Artificial vegetable–fruit	1	0.67
Harmful bacteria	1	0.67	Smart phone	1	0.67
Rotten ferment	1	0.67	Neutral	1	0.67
Nuclear power station	1	0.67	Slurry	1	0.67
Drug killing the human	1	0.67	Adding sugar to beans	1	0.67
Zombie	1	0.67	Placing a gene into the DNA of a plant or animal	1	0.67
Unnecessarily-used medicine	1	0.67	Rodent insect gnawing the human body	1	0.67
Bomb	1	0.67	Sofa with decaying legs	1	0.67
Watermelon without taste	1	0.67	Wormy intestine	1	0.67
Ball	1	0.67	Technology	1	0.67
Toy	1	0.67	Bomb ready to explode	1	0.67
Shapeless items	1	0.67	Wormy tree	1	0.67
Tomato with a different shape	1	0.67	Potato with increased weight	1	0.67
Cube-shaped watermelon	1	0.67	Sweet corn	1	0.67
Deformity	1	0.67	Perfect	1	0.67
Artificial substance	1	0.67	Beautiful apple	1	0.67
Olive with a white seed	1	0.67	Smooth apples in appearance	1	0.67
Gorilla	1	0.67	Rice lacking vitamin	1	0.67
Broken fridge	1	0.67	Messy room	1	0.67
Doll	1	0.67	Blue big strawberry	1	0.67
Mega sponge	1	0.67	G-mail password changed	1	0.67
Human with hormone intake	1	0.67	Pen without ink	1	0.67
Rotten or artificial vegetable–fruit	1	0.67	Lie	1	0.67
Puffed chicken	1	0.67	Mutation	1	0.67
Cloning	1	0.67	Old woman with aesthetic operation	1	0.67
Vegetables	1	0.67	Scentless rose	1	0.67
Smooth vegetables and fruits in appearance	1	0.67	Fat tomato	1	0.67
Object losing its originality	1	0.67	Banana with a different shape	1	0.67
Something different from its original form	1	0.67	Chemical event	1	0.67
Living being with its natural structure distorted	1	0.67	Watermelon looking like a pumpkin	1	0.67
Bogy	1	0.67
			Total	150

As can be seen in Table 2, a total of 150 appropriate metaphors were produced by the preservice teachers, and 117 of them were different metaphors. The most frequent metaphors were 'tomato (f = 5, 3.33%)'; 'poison, balloon (f = 4, 2.67%)'; 'human, obese person, woman with make-up, virus, aesthetics, watermelon (f = 3, 2%)'; and 'mobile phone made in China, two-faced person, cancer, plastic, parasite, weapon, stale bread, rotten apple, chameleon, leading to death, person with botulinum toxin injections done (f = 2, 1.33%)'. Each of the other metaphors was different and used only once (f = 1, 0.67%).

Categories Including the Metaphors with Similar Features Produced by the Science Preservice Teachers

The metaphors produced by the participants were gathered under six categories with respect to the similar features of the metaphors, as mentioned previously. When the metaphors were classified depending on their similar features, it was seen that some of the preservice teachers produced the same metaphors; however, due to the reasons for use of these metaphors as stated by the preservice teachers in the explanation part, these metaphors were thought to belong to different categories. As an example, below, two of the preservice teachers used the same metaphor, but the two instances were included in different categories because the reasons for their use were different.

"GMOs are like a poison because all of the foods we eat include poison, which really harms us. We suffer from illnesses more" (P63).

"GMOs are like a poison because people consuming GMO products will certainly be exposed to its harms in the long-term, though they may not experience its harms in the short-term. Like products with agricultural pesticides, GMOs lead to illnesses and even to death" (P3).

As one of the preservice teachers here (coded as P63) stated that GMOs cause harm just like a poison, the metaphor produced by this participant was allotted to the category of 'having harmful effects', while, when the same metaphor was used by a different preservice teacher (coded as P3), it was attributed to the category of 'having harmful effects that occur over time' due to this participant thinking that GMOs would be harmful over time, though the negative effects may not occur instantly.

As explained previously, when the metaphors produced by the preservice teachers were examined, it was seen that the metaphors could be gathered under six categories with respect to the similar and common features of the metaphors. Table 3 demonstrates the categories and the related frequencies and percentages.

Table 3. Categories of the Metaphors Produced by the Preservice Teachers Regarding the Concept of GMOs

Conceptual Categories	f	%
Causing changes in appearance or structure	51	34.00
Having harmful effects though seemingly beneficial ones at first glance	43	28.67
Having harmful effects	29	19.33
Having harmful effects that occur over time	12	8.00
Having both beneficial and harmful effects	9	6.00
Having beneficial effects	6	4.00
Total	150

When Table 3 is examined, it is seen that the most frequent metaphor belonged to the category of 'causing changes in appearance or structure' (f = 51, 34%) and that the least frequent metaphor belonged to the category of 'having beneficial effects' (f = 6, 4%).

When the names of the categories were examined, it was seen that four of the six categories included the word 'harm'. The reason for this could be the fact that most of the preservice teachers' metaphors regarding GMOs included statements related to their perceived negative or harmful aspects.

Category 1: Causing changes in appearance or structure

The metaphors used by the preservice teachers to state that there was a change in the appearances and structures of foods with GMOs included were gathered under this category. This category included metaphors used to report that there were changes in the appearance or the genetic structure of the living being and that the living being acquired new traits that it did not have previously. When the category of 'causing changes in appearance or structure' was examined, it was seen that most of the preservice teachers perceived GMO products to be different in appearance, shapeless, bigger, or smoother when compared to their usual forms and they also pointed out that people eating foods with GMOs have different physical appearances. Table 4 presents the metaphors belonging to this category.

Table 4. Metaphors Produced by the Preservice Teachers Regarding the Concept of GMOs in the Category of 'Causing Changes in Appearance or Structure'

Metaphor	f	%	Metaphor	f	%
Tomato	4	7.84	Toy	1	1.96
Balloon	3	5.88	Shapeless items	1	1.96
Watermelon	3	5.88	Tomato with a different shape	1	1.96
Chameleon	2	3.92	Cube-shaped watermelon	1	1.96
Aesthetics	2	3.92	Person with botulinum toxin injections done	1	1.96
Messy room	1	1.96	Deformity	1	1.96
Blue big strawberry	1	1.96	Artificial substance	1	1.96
G-mail password changed	1	1.96	Human	1	1.96
Obese person	1	1.96	Olive with a white seed	1	1.96
Pen without ink	1	1.96	Gorilla	1	1.96
Lie	1	1.96	Stale bread	1	1.96
Mutation	1	1.96	Broken fridge	1	1.96
Scentless rose	1	1.96	Rotten apple	1	1.96
Fat tomato	1	1.96	Doll	1	1.96
Banana with a different shape	1	1.96	Sponge	1	1.96
Chemical event	1	1.96	Human with hormone intake	1	1.96
Watermelon looking like a pumpkin	1	1.96	Cloning	1	1.96
Living being with its natural structure distorted	1	1.96	Vegetables	1	1.96
Plastic	1	1.96	Smooth vegetables and fruits in appearance	1	1.96
Rotten or artificial vegetable–fruit	1	1.96	Object losing its originality	1	1.96
Puffed chicken	1	1.96	Something different from its original form	1	1.96
			Total	51

When Table 4 is examined, it can be noted that this category included a total of 51 metaphors and that 42 of them were unique from one another. The most frequent metaphors in this category were 'tomato' (n = 4), 'watermelon' (n = 3), 'balloon' (n = 3), 'aesthetics' (n = 2), and 'chameleon' (n = 2).

A few reasons for why some of the preservice teachers used these metaphors regarding GMOs in this category are as follows:

"GMO is like a blue big strawberry because its natural organism is distorted since its gene has been modified; thus, it now has an unusual shape, size, and colour" (P2).

"GMO is like an obese person because it is so different from its original appearance that it is really hard to recognize. Likewise, the use of GMOs makes it almost impossible to recognize that fruit or vegetable" (P5).

"GMO is like a chemical event because, in a chemical event, we make changes in substances and get the desired result. If the gene of a living being is changed, then it will never be as it was in the past" (P58).

"GMO is like a tomato because a tomato likes water and it is not prolific at all in a waterless environment. With the transfer of genes taken from desert plants to a tomato plant, it may become resistant to drought and thus become prolific" (P54).

"GMO is like aesthetics because when aesthetics are constantly applied, the physical appearance will change completely, losing its original appearance" (P75).

Category 2: Having harmful effects though seemingly beneficial ones at first glance

The metaphors used to state that GMO products actually have harmful effects though they seem to be as if they were beneficial initially were gathered under this category. When the metaphors belonging to this category were examined, it was seen that, according to the participants, GMO products initially had beautiful, appealing, and attractive appearances but that these products were actually useless or even harmful in the end. The preservice teachers generally reported that the physical appearances of GMO products were misleading and that these products had the potential to have harmful effects on living beings. Table 5 presents the metaphors belonging to the category of 'having harmful effects though seemingly beneficial ones at first glance'.

Table 5. Metaphors Produced by the Preservice Teachers Regarding the Concept of GMOs in the Category of 'Having Harmful Effects Though Seemingly Beneficial Ones at First Glance'

Metaphor	f	%	Metaphor	f	%
Woman with make-up	3	6.98	Poisonous apple	1	2.33
Mobile phone made in China	2	4.65	Person with views changed	1	2.33
Two-faced person	2	4.65	Nice-looking worn-out building	1	2.33
Old woman with aesthetic operation	1	2.33	Broken watch	1	2.33
Human	1	2.33	Tasteless onion with a beautiful appearance	1	2.33
Watermelon looking like a pumpkin	1	2.33	Quicksilver	1	2.33
Ball	1	2.33	Microbe	1	2.33
Bottle full of alcohol	1	2.33	Artificial flower	1	2.33
Empty can	1	2.33	Blow-dried hair	1	2.33
Empty box	1	2.33	Poisonous substance	1	2.33
Pomegranate with no seeds in it	1	2.33	Basketball	1	2.33
Dependent person	1	2.33	Obese person	1	2.33
Winter tomato	1	2.33	Leading to death	1	2.33
Decorated but empty box	1	2.33	Person with botulinum toxin injections done	1	2.33
Old cheap car looking like BMW	1	2.33	Softly-speaking bad person	1	2.33
Sweet appearance with bitter taste	1	2.33	Tomato	1	2.33
Balloon	1	2.33	Modified cheap car	1	2.33
Packed biscuit	1	2.33	Diamond	1	2.33
Poisonous cake	1	2.33	Perfect corn	1	2.33
Aesthetics
			Total	43

When Table 5 is examined, it can be observed that this category included the second highest number of metaphors out of the six categories included in this research. In this category, there were 43 metaphors in total, and 39 of them were different from one another. The most frequent metaphors in this category were "woman with make-up" (n = 3), "mobile phone made in China" (n = 2), and "two-faced person" (n = 2), respectively. Below are some examples of the metaphors and the reasons for why the preservice teachers reported them.

"GMO is like an old woman with [an] aesthetic operation because her appearance has been made beautiful thanks to [the] operation, but her organs and cells are still old" (P35).

"GMO is like a mobile phone made in China because it looks beautiful, but it does not work. GMOs are something like that. As GMO products are genetically modified, they are not natural. I mean, they are fake" (P51).

"GMO is like a two-faced person because, when the organism is genetically modified, you cannot realize this change. It is seriously harmful to human health" (P67).

"GMO is like something with a sweet appearance but a bitter taste because fruits have different shapes, and we may see tasteless fruits and vegetables but with beautiful appearances" (P106).

Category 3: Having harmful effects

The metaphors reported on the topic of the harmful effects of GMO foods belong to this category. When the reasons for stating these metaphors in this category were examined, it was seen that, according to the preservice teachers, GMO products cause people to suffer from illnesses, a shortened human lifespan, and high rates of obesity. Table 6 presents the metaphors produced by the preservice teachers in this category.

Table 6. Metaphors Produced by the Preservice Teachers Regarding the Concept of GMOs in the Category of 'Having Harmful Effects'

Metaphor	f	%
Virus	3	10.34
Poison	2	6.90
Bogy	1	3.45
Grave	1	3.45
Murderers looking like foods	1	3.45
İllness	1	3.45
C.botulium	1	3.45
Chemical weapon	1	3.45
Rotten food	1	3.45
Obese person	1	3.45
Poisonous mushroom	1	3.45
Acid	1	3.45
Harmful substance	1	3.45
Plastic	1	3.45
Harmful bacteria	1	3.45
Rotten ferment	1	3.45
Rotten apple	1	3.45
Nuclear power station	1	3.45
Weapon	1	3.45
Drug killing the human	1	3.45
Zombie	1	3.45
Unnecessarily-used medicine	1	3.45
Being poisoned	1	3.45
Leading to death	1	3.45
Bomb	1	3.45
Cancer	1	3.45
Total	29

In Table 6, it can be seen that there were 29 metaphors attributed to this category, with 26 being distinctive. The most frequent metaphors were virus (n = 3) and poison (n = 2). Each of the other metaphors was used only once, and they were all different. Below are some examples of the metaphors and the reasons for why the preservice teachers produced them.

"GMO is like an acid because, when you pour acid onto a substance, it harms that substance, just as GMOs harm people" (P59).

"GMO is like a poisonbecause all of the foods we eat include poisons that harm us. As a result, we suffer from illnesses more" (P63).

"GMO is like a bomb because it harms our body in all respects" (P171).

"GMO is like a cancer because these products cause changes in the human defence mechanism and lead to an increase in diseases" (P186).

Category 4: Having harmful effects that occur over time

The metaphors regarding the long-term harmful effects of GMO foods were gathered under this category. In other words, this category included metaphors produced by the participants to suggest that GMO products did not have any observable harmful effects at the beginning, but then later caused various negative effects on the human body over time. Table 7 below presents the frequencies and percentages related to the metaphors produced within this category.

Table 7. Metaphors Produced by the Preservice Teachers in relation to the Concept of GMOs for the Category of 'Having Harmful Effects That Occur Over Time'

Metaphor	f	%
Parasite	2	16.67
Poison	2	16.67
Stale bread	1	8.33
Rodent or insect gnawing on the human body	1	8.33
Sofa with decaying legs	1	8.33
Cancer	1	8.33
Wormy intestine	1	8.33
Technology	1	8.33
Bomb ready to explode	1	8.33
Wormy tree	1	8.33
Total	12

In reviewing Table 7, 12 metaphors were noted to be part of this category. Among these metaphors, 10 of them were different, with poison (n = 2) and parasite (n = 2) being the most frequent metaphors used. Below are some examples of the metaphors and the reasons for why the preservice teachers produced them.

"GMO is like a poison because related research shows that GMOs are quite harmful with bad effects on people and that their use results in cancer and slowly leads to death" (P46).

"GMO is like a rodent or insect gnawing on the human body because the GMO foods we eat are exposed to agricultural pesticides without waiting for the process of natural maturation, and they cause various illnesses over time, as they never leave the human body. Though these foods may not seem to have any observable harms at the beginning, they could have a poisonous effect in future" (P24).

Category 5: Having both beneficial and harmful effects

Metaphors used by the preservice teachers to mean that GMO foods were both beneficial and harmful belonged to this category. Table 8 shows these metaphors.

Table 8. Metaphors Produced by the Preservice Teachers in Relation to the Concept of GMOs for the Category of 'Having Both Beneficial and Harmful Effects'

Metaphor	f	%
Antibiotic	1	11.11
Weapon	1	11.11
Human	1	11.11
Artificial vegetable–fruit	1	11.11
Smartphone	1	11.11
Neutral	1	11.11
Slurry	1	11.11
Adding sugar to beans	1	11.11
Placing a gene into the DNA of a plant or animal	1	11.11
Total	9

When Table 8 is examined, it is seen that there were nine metaphors placed in this category. Notably, all of the metaphors belonging to this category were different from one another. It was revealed that the preservice teachers surveyed found GMOs to be beneficial in terms of providing a remedy for famine, obtaining more products in a shorter period of time, and having a beautiful appearance, while they considered GMOs to be harmful with respect to being harmful to human health, leading to illnesses, and changing the tastes of foods. Below are some examples of the metaphors and the reasons for why the preservice teachers suggested them.

"GMO is like an antibiotic because, besides its benefits, it also gives harm. In some cases, we do not give importance to its harms. It allows us to obtain more products in a shorter period of time, but harms us due to the distorted natural structure of the food. The reason for why I compared it to an antibiotic is that, when used too much, an antibiotic is also harmful to our health' (P14).

"GMO is like a human: it may be beneficial as well as harmful for us as a result of various factors. It may be a friend of us or an enemy' (P22).

"GMO is like a smartphonebecause one can benefit from it or may suffer from its harmful side effects as well" (P125).

Category 6: Having beneficial effects

The metaphors used by the preservice teachers to indicate the benefits of GMO were gathered under this category. In this category, there were only a few metaphors produced by the participants. The preservice teachers thought that GMOs increased the nutritive value of foods, allowed for the obtaining of more products in a shorter period of time, and beautified the colours and shapes of foods. Table 9 presents the related metaphors.

Table 9. Metaphors Produced by the Preservice Teachers in Relation to the Concept of GMOs for the Category of 'Having Beneficial Effects'

Metaphor	f	%
Potato with increased weight	1	16.6
Sweet corn	1	16.6
Perfect	1	16.6
Beautiful apple	1	16.6
Smooth apples in appearance	1	16.6
Rice lacking vitamins	1	16.6
Total	6

When Table 9 is examined, it can be seen that only six metaphors were included in this category, and all of them were different from each other. Some examples of the metaphors and the reasons why the preservice teachers produced were as follows:

"GMO is like rice lacking vitamins, because adding genes to the rice will help to increase the vitamin content" (P61).

"GMO is like something perfect because, by modifying an apple genetically, one can have an apple with perfect colour, shape, and appearance. I mean, you can make it more attractive by changing its appearance using GMOs" (P137).