Preservice science teachers’ metaphors on the subject of genetically modified organisms

Today, in order to create successful and productive societies, individuals must learn about the processes of learning, thinking, and how to use technology for the benefit of people (Hançer, 2007). In this regard, individuals are expected to investigate and question the information they receive rather than simply accepting it as truth without further consideration and to use metacognitive skills when faced with problems so that they can meet the needs of the current era (Balım & Ormancı, 2012). All of these expectations are among the basic goals and objectives of science education. It could be stated that the technological and scientific development levels of societies including individuals equipped with these skills will rise over time. Developments in the field of science and technology have important effects on the functions of the environment, societies, and individuals. Therefore, developments in the field of science and technology are influential in a number of areas such as in managing environmental problems, genetic diseases, agriculture, and so on. Today, there are increasing efforts to enhance agricultural production and animal production in line with the growing global human population. It is thought that the world's population will exceed eight billion by 2025 and that 95% of this increase will occur in developed countries (Çetiner, 2004). However, the rate of population growth has not been paralleled so far by the rate of production of foods to meet the needs of the projected population size. Therefore, for such reasons as the population growth, the decreasing rate of farmlands, and food waste, famine and poverty problems are now thought to threaten human beings (Arda, 1994; Phillips, 2008). The decreasing number of natural sources has led to development of different technologies for food production (Yeşilbağ, 2004). Of note, recent occurrences in the fields of biotechnology and genetic engineering have made it possible to transfer genes between living beings. These advancements are expected to allow for the removal of most of the negative effects seen in food technology, agriculture, and ecology. Among these developments, the most popular one is the creation of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). According to the World Health Organization (2005) 'a GMO is created by changing the gene sequence of the original living organism with the help of gene technologies or … by adding new traits to a living organism with the transfer of genes with different traits from viruses, bacteria, plants, or animals' . In related literature, organisms obtained using genetic engineering are called one of the following: genetically modified products, GMOs, transgenetic organisms, bioengineering organisms, and so on (Uzogara, 2000).

GMOs exist in many areas in our lives and are used in a number of foods we consume. Numerous foods such as baby foods, fried foods, meat, fish, dairy products, fruits and vegetables, frozen foods, canned foods, candies, sauces, biscuits, pudding, vegetable oils, medicine, hormones, vaccines, and so on all can be produced with the help of this method (Çelik & Balık, 2007; Phillips, 2008; Takeda & Matsuoka, 2008; Topal, 2004). The use of foods produced with GMOs could be a solution to the nutrition problems present in the world today, but many people are also concerned about the safety of these foods (Claybourne, 2007). Some individuals believe that genetically modified plants and animals will have a negative influence on the ecological balance as well as on the health of living beings and that they will be dependent on monopolized companies selling seeds. The probable negative effects of products and organisms obtained with this technology are claimed to include allergic reactions caused by GMO products, their toxic effects, their negative effects on ecology, and risks related to genetic diversity (Çelik & Balık, 2007; Muir & Howard, 1999; Tüysüzoğlu, & Gülsaçan, 2004).

Establishing the subject more pervasively in science education will increase the permanency of people's knowledge on the topic. Furthermore, if science subjects are taught based on metaphors, then students' learning will become more meaningful and permanent. Metaphors can be defined as a tool that concretizes abstract concepts and which helps individuals to learn difficult-to-remember information via schemes in the mind with the use of fewer words (Yücel Cengiz, 2016).

Metaphors can also be defined as a powerful mental tool that individuals can use to explain abstract and complex phenomena (Saban, Koçbeker & Saban, 2006). Metaphors are considered to be an individual's way of perceiving of the world. Individuals make use of metaphors while defining their own feelings and thoughts as well as others', which makes their consideration helpful in becoming informed about individuals' ways of perceiving themselves and others (Girmen, 2007). In addition, metaphors allow for one to give meaning to unknown phenomena with the help of more concrete and previously experienced phenomena so that novel abstract and complex concepts can be explained. Metaphors do not simply refer to figures of speech used in daily life but rather cover more than that (Saban, Koçbeker, & Saban, 2006).

In our daily life, while explaining most concepts, we either attempt to make a concept we want to explain resemble another one we have experienced before or we consider and highlight the common aspects of two concepts; in this way, we use metaphors, which have been regarded in recent years as the basic mechanism of reasoning (Ocak & Gündüz, 2006). In this respect, people make use of metaphors and similes while explaining a number of situations in their daily lives in order to strengthen their expression and conveyance of information. Specifically, the situation or phenomenon that the individual wants to explain will be explained better if it is likened to or compared with another one by place emphasis on certain features (Şişman, 2002).

Today, GMOs are commonly used in many areas including industry, agriculture, and health, and the concept concerns all individuals in terms of its socioscientific aspects as well as effects on human and environment (Tanır, 2005). In the present study, the metaphor method requiring metacognitive thinking was used to reveal preservice teachers' perceptions regarding GMOs, a very popular and constantly developing subject. This study is considered to be important since it tried to reveal preservice teachers' perceptions regarding GMOs and to determine the correctness of their knowledge about GMOs. In this regard, revealing science preservice teachers' perceptions regarding GMOs with the help of metaphors is thought to contribute to the related literature.

The following research questions were established, in line with the purpose of the study:

What are the metaphors used by preservice science teachers to explain the concept of GMOs?

Which categorie(s) do the preservice science teachers' metaphors belong to?