The effect of using the history of sciences on conceptual understanding and intrinsic motivation

Misconception and Conceptual change

Most studies have shown that students at all achievement levels have misconceptions concerning vision, propagation of light and refraction (Viennot, 1996; Galili and Hazan, 2000; Mistrioti, 2003; Kaewkhong et al., 2010; Blizak et al., 2013; Uzun et al, 2013…).

Kaewkhong et al. (2010), indicates Thai students in high-school, even after instruction, had significant misconceptions about the direction of propagation of light, how light refracts at an interface, and how to determine the position of image. Viennot (1996) shows that first year university students do not understand the basic principle of the image formation. Also, concerning the formation of image of an object given by a plane diopter, only 11% (N = 30) of the university’s students concerned by the study of Mistrioti (2003), have given a good answer. In our previous study (Blizak et al., 2013), we have showed that students at the university think that light needs medium to be propagate.

Shadows are formed when rays of light are stopped by objects, but students think that shadows can be conceived as an image, or as something belonging to an object (Anderson and Bach, 2005). There is a need to see light as an entity in space for being able to give an explanation of the formation of shadows (Galili and Hazan, 2000). Furthermore, students from the Science Education department did not distinguish light ray and light beam (Palacios et al., 1989). Recently, When Uzun et al. (2013) have revealed that students’ misconceptions about vision remained similar from primary to university level. From Heywood (2005) study, students knew how we can see an object without a clear understanding of the process of sight. The same result has been shown by Libarkin et al. (2011) 42% of teachers believed that vision requires projection of light from the eyes (eye-centred).

While misconceptions constructed at earlier ages are so strong that they are difficult to change (Ürey and Çalık, 2008), the conceptual change is necessary. That’s why many models have been proposed in literature for explaining the operation of this conceptual change.

Posner et al. (1982) proposed a model that provides an explanation for how conceptual change might occur. They affirmed that learning occurs when the student, dissatisfied with his existing conceptions, finds the new concept understandable, rational and useful.

Also Duit and Treagust (2003) proposed that in order for learning to occur, students must first critically evaluate misconceptions and revise them to be compatible with the discipline.

Strike and Posner (1982) also recognize the influence of affective aspects, motivational and social factors on the process of conceptual change. In addition, Palmer (2003) stated that motivation is an important factor in the construction of knowledge and the process of conceptual change. Pintrich et al. (1993) have declared that the model of conceptual change should envisage the influence of the student’s motivation in learning processes. Conceptual change is no longer limited to conditions relating solely to the content, but must take account of motivation factors.

We are convinced of the importance of the motivation can play in conception change.

Motivation

Pintrich et al. (1993) point out that learning is not entirely a rationally directed process. They indicate that the cognitive action of the learner depends on his motivational state. Thus, it is important to know more about motivation in learning and teaching process.

In the school context, Viau (1994) states that motivation is a dynamic state that has its origins in the student perceptions of him and his environment and the incentive to choose an activity, engage and persevere in his accomplishment to achieve a goal. The self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 2002) also identified three forms of motivation:

Intrinsic motivation is the most self-determined form of motivation. It is the tendency to engage in an activity for the pleasure of learning and discovering new things. Thus, a student who attends the course of GO for his pleasure and the satisfaction that learning new knowledge in this area gives him is a good example of a person motivated intrinsically;
Extrinsic motivation is the fact of engaging in activities for purely instrumental and external reasons to the activity itself
The amotivation is the lowest level of self-determination. A person amotivated, is neither intrinsically nor extrinsically motivated.

Given its importance, the intrinsic motivation, which is done in complete absence of external pressure, has been the subject of much research in academic learning context. There is a positive relationship between intrinsic motivation and academic achievement (Niehaus et al., 2012). Pintrich et al. (1999) also affirm that students with higher levels of intrinsic motivation adopt more elaborate metacognitive and self-regulatory strategies that facilitate conceptual change.

Vallerand and Thill (1993) suggest that students who have a greater intrinsic motivation expressed more pleasant emotions in the classroom, take advantage of fun with their school work. Fettahlioglu and Ekici (2011) studied the relationship between academic self-efficacy and motivation to learn science among future teachers. They found that there is a positive and significant relationship between self-efficacy and motivation. Lin et al. (2001) have tried to answer the question: how the extrinsic and intrinsic motivation affect learning among students taking courses in biology, English and psychology at Korean universities. They found that intrinsic motivation produces better performance than extrinsic motivation. Therefore, teachers should eliminate or minimize external pressures and develop intrinsically interesting activities.

The results of scientific studies, which we have just cited above, give us a ground to choose to study just the intrinsic motivation. It should facilitate conceptual change and increase achievement. Also, gender is not taken in consideration because there is in fact no correlation between sex and motivation to learn physics (Changeiywo et al., 2012).

History of sciences and teaching optics

History of science has been presented by a number of researchers as a useful tool in science education research, especially about research on students’ misconceptions in GO topics. Some researchers argue that the initial scientific knowledge of students is similar to the scientific knowledge in the ancient world, and it is composed of observations and conclusions which were often intuitive (Kaminski, 1989). For example, Most of the student’s misconceptions about vision have been founded in history. Rashed (1992) has shown to how the ideas about light and vision have been developed through a 2500 year long history. Researchers have suggested that the historical approach can help achieve a better understanding of the essence of scientific phenomena, scientific methodology and the overall scientific thought (Abd-El-Khalick and Lederman, 2000; Şeker, 2011). It serves the facilitation of learning science. The presentation of old scientific models, confronting them with modern styles, and possibly presenting some arguments which led to abandon the old for the new, may raise questions among students and help them to reconsider their preconceptions. Monk and Osborn (1997) also believe that when students are discovering that very respectable and intelligent people in the past, have a very similar thinking to their own, they will be in a comforting situation.

According Zemplén (2007), HoS can be incorporated into science courses to promote a better understanding and develop critical thinking skills. Moreover, Song et al. (1997) discuss the idea that the history of science is largely a process of conceptual change with which past scientists struggled for thousands of years. Discussing theories at length, including their origin, development, and replacement by other theories can help students to understand both objective and subjective aspects of the scientific process. Students are also able to appreciate how scientific knowledge is constructed when they know the evolution of ideas in the nature of light (Oon and Subramaniam, 2009)

Chi, (2005) comments that some students’ misconceptions resemble to the explanations of medieval scientists. When moving from their alternative conceptions to accepted scientific concepts, students could experience a similar journey to scientists in developing their understanding of the light propagation.

Given that the students have misconceptions in optics like those encountered by scientists in the past (Viennot, 1996; Chafiqi and Blizak, 2014), many researchers are interested in the introduction of HoS approach in teaching sequences to promote conceptual change in OG (Galili and Goldberg, 1996; de Hosson and Kaminski, 2007; Mihas, 2008).

Mihas (2008) examined ways to use historical resources in the teaching of refraction. For him, the experimental procedures can be taught using Ptolemy tables and Al-Haytham methods. The law of refraction can be used as an example of the law that has been discovered but set aside. Models of atmospheric refraction given by Al- Haythan, can be used to show the fact that the refraction cannot be considered as the cause of the variation of the size of the moon.

Galili and Goldberg (1996) proposed a linear approximation similar to Kepler’s approximation of the law of refraction to get a better understanding of image formation. They have found that many teachers, in service teacher training, appreciate this form of the law giving them a grasp on refraction phenomena without disrupting them with trigonometry.

De Hosson and Kaminski (2007) have integrated in a teaching–learning sequence and experimented with six pairs of students aged 12–13 a dialogue on the ways that vision operates. They have referred to the history of the optical mechanism of vision, especially to the controversy over the direction of vision and Alhazen’s ideas about the situation of dazzle by light. The analysis of the teaching–learning sequence shows that this learning process offered to the students the opportunity to identify themselves with the scientists and make them become aware of their own cognitive process. Some students who have participated in this study were able to clearly analyse the elements that helped them to change their spontaneous ideas. Students may be more motivated to learn, when they realize that:

“the different laws of refraction and the fact that Ibn Sahl’s law was actually Snell’s law can show that science is not progressing in a straight path but there are many instances of going back” (Mihas 2008, p. 775).

As suggested by Song et al. (1997), discussing the Greek theories and the developments made by the Eastern Islamic scientists can help children to understand both objective and subjective aspects of the scientific process. Furthermore, it can be revealed to students that science is interplay of ideas and is developed by people whose ideas change over time.

The important role of HoS and motivation in teaching science has been shown not only by the scientists mentioned so far but and its positive effect on the conceptual change among students in the field of GO has also been illustrated by the significant amount of research in physics education. Moreover, Solbes and Traver (2003) showed that several groups of 15 to 17 students can greatly enhance their interest in science after work with the documents that contain many different activities that involve multiple historical aspects of science, as biographies, original documents, or videos showing the making and the growth of the main concepts in physics and chemistry. However, Vergnaud et al. (1978) note that it is unrealistic to assume that the historical presentation of knowledge could remove all obstacles teaching. It can be used in some cases, but it can also help to rise up obstacles that do not exist with another presentation.

We consider HoS as a factor of motivation, awakening of interest and curiosity for learning scientific concepts. Thus it is a way it creates a favourable environment for conceptual change and has an effect in better success.