Korean elementary school students' perceptions of relationship with marine organisms

Since this study examined elementary students’ perceptions of their relationship with marine organisms in Korean social and cultural contexts, we employed sociocultural theory as a lens to interpret their perceptions. Sociocultural theory explains that individual’s learning and cognition are influenced by their social and cultural contexts (Vygotsky, 1978; Wertsch, 1991^a, 1991^b). Given that literature reviews guide the directions of analysis and interpretation and eventually help with answering the research questions, which dictate the study’s process, we also reviewed literature related to human-nature connectedness and values of nature for an analytical framework.

Sociocultural Theory

Learning can be defined as the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, and beliefs through transformation of experience (Kolb, 1984). From a sociocultural perspective, learning and cognition are typically situated in social and cultural contexts and are rarely decontextualized (Vygotsky, 1978; Wertsch, 1991^a, 1991^b). The dynamic interdependence of social and individual processes as underscored by Vygotsky (1978) conceptualizes development as the transformation of socially shared activities into internalized processes (John-Steiner & Mahn, 1996). The basic principle of a sociocultural approach to mind is that “human mental functioning is inherently situated in social, interactional, cultural, institutional, and historical context” (Wertsch, 1991^b, p. 86), and mediated by language and other symbol systems (John-Steiner & Mahn, 1996). Thus, the product of learning can be viewed as something socioculturally constructed, and students’ knowledge, perceptions, values, and attitudes about the ocean and marine organisms can be quite different depending on their sociocultural backgrounds.

Connectedness to Nature

In the field of environmental psychology, the term ‘connectedness to nature [CN]’ refers to the degree to which individuals associated themselves with nature (Mayer & Frantz, 2004; Schultz, 2002). CN represents individuals’ sense of ‘oneness’ with the natural world which is similar to the deep ecology concept of ecological self or environmental identity (Clayton, 2003). A number of researchers have reported that individuals’ (a) beliefs about nature, (b) strong emotional affinity, and (c) positive experiences with nature are important mediators to increase their CN (Dunlap, Van Liere, Mertig, & Jones, 2000; Mayer & Frantz, 2004; Nisbet, Zelenski, & Murphy, 2009). Also an individual’s CN plays a key role in the development and facilitation of responsible environmental attitudes and behaviors (Feral, 1998; Goralnik & Nelson, 2011; Mayer & Frantz, 2004; Schultz, 2002). In turn, a person who has a higher level of CN will be associated with more caring for nature and a higher rate of commitment to protect nature (Schultz, 2002). In addition to the three components outlined above, sociocultural variables such as age, gender, ethnicity, area of residence, and parents/family are also proposed as additional indirect factors to strengthen or weaken an individual’s CN. For example, family members who share their values and enjoyment of nature may significantly contribute to children’s development of an emotional affinity to nature (Kals, Schumacher, & Montada, 1999) and also motivate pro-environmental actions (Chawla & Cushing, 2007; Cheng & Monore, 2010).

To measure individuals’ CN, several scales have been developed including the New Environmental Paradigm Scale by Dunlap et al. (2000), Inclusion of Nature in Self by Schultz (2000), Implicit Associations Test by Schultz, Shriver, Tabanico, and Khazian (2004), Connectedness to Nature Scale by Mayer and Frantz (2004), and Connection to Nature Index by Cheng and Monroe (2010). While the above mentioned instruments employed a closed-ended questionnaire, Vining, Merrick and Price (2008) examined individuals’ CN using open-ended questions. A review of the literature on CN measurement indicates that although many instruments were designed to assess individuals’ overall CN, the majority did not focus specifically on components of nature (e.g., forest, ocean, or wildlife). In addition, most instruments were designed for adults rather than children. Hence, these particular tools may have limited utility in the case of the demographic of Korean children, but the construct of CN is an important dimension to understand given the warrant previously discussed and the research questions of this study.

Values of Nature

The term ‘value’ has various meanings in different contexts. Dietz, Fitzgerald, and Shwom (2005) suggest it has three interpretations: “what something is worth, opinions about that worth, and moral principles” (p. 339). An individual’s feelings of CN are related to values (Dietz et al., 2005) because objects (e.g., plants, animals, and other people) are more valued when individuals feel such objects represent themselves (Schultz, 2002). In this sense, the values of nature can be actualized by human-nature relationships (Rolstone, 1981). Nature can be perceived differently by the values placed on it (Lamb, 1996). Such a perception will influence humans’ attitudes toward nature, which will impact their actions on behalf of the natural world (Muir, 1901 cited in Goralnik & Nelson, 2011).

There are a number of researchers who have conceptualized the values associated with nature. For example, Rolston (1981) conceptualized the following ten values: economic value; life support value; recreational value; scientific value; aesthetic value; life value; diversity and unity values; stability and spontaneity values; dialectical value; and sacramental values. Robertson (1998) synthesized the value of nature into three categories that include intrinsic, inherent, and instrumental values. Instrumental value, in particular, is assessed by an awareness of the human relationship with nature. Based on their empirical studies on humans’ biophilic typology toward wildlife, Kellert and Westervelt (1983) placed the value of nature in the following nine categories: naturalistic, ecologistic, humanistic, moralistic, scientific, aesthetic, utilitarian, dominionistic, and negativistic.

Since values of nature are often constructed early in life through interaction with physical and social environments (Kahn, 2002) and are tied to one’s identity (Schwartz, 2006), these values become a relatively stable element of one’s personality (Steg & De Groot, 2012). The value - attitude - behavior hierarchy (Homer & Kahle, 1988) was examined in the environmental domain and confirmed that values are crucial and functional in attitude formation as well as behavior development (Milfont, Duckitt, & Wagner, 2010; Vaske & Donnelly, 1999). Also, values can be “better predictors of pro-environmental norms and intentions than ecological worldviews and environmental concerns” (Steg & De Groot, 2012, p. 89).

From the perspectives of sociocultural theory, learning outcomes such as knowledge, perceptions, values, and attitudes are socioculturally constructed. In this sense, individuals’ perceptions of connectedness to and values of nature can be distinctive reflecting their previous experiences as well as cultural and historical context. Hence, we find that a hybrid framework incorporating Sociocultural Theory, Connectedness to Nature, and Values of Nature will be an effective lens to understand urban sixth grade Korean students’ experiences with, connectedness to, and values of marine organisms which are crucial components of ocean literacy development.