The use of ICT in teaching tertiary physics: Technology and pedagogy

Information Communication Technology

Information and communication technology (ICT) is defined by UNESCO as forms of technology used for creating, displaying, storing, manipulating, and exchanging information (Meleisea, 2007). ICTs, in general, consist of computers, hardware and software, networks, learning management systems, e-mail, internet, telephone, television, radio and so forth.

In the 1960s and 1970s, schools and universities started to use printed material, television, radio, overhead projectors and movies in teaching. Since personal computers and the internet began being more widely used in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the use of ICTs in education has grown rapidly. The proliferation of personal computers and the Internet resulted in significant changes in the implementation of ICTs in education. ICTs included not only learning resources but also tools to facilitate interaction and collaboration (Caladine, 2008; Taylor, 1995). Learning management systems such as Blackboard and WebCT became widespread. Social networking sites (e.g. FaceBook, Flicker and Yahoo3600) permitted people to create profiles and upload information including text, photos, pictures, audio files and video files. The users could also add, edit and remove content.

Information and Communication Technology and Learning

The focus of ICTs in this study is the use of internet, software, multimedia resources, course management systems and computer-based testing systems in education. The applications of ICTs are categorised into the three groups represented in Table 1: learning resources, instructional organisation of learning and communication (Collis & Moonen, 2001)

The applications of ICTs in learning resources include educational software, distributed resources via the internet and video resources. Educational software is not only learning resources for students but also tools for instructional organisation of learning. Examples of physics education software are Physics Pro, Crocodile Physics and Andres Physics. Rich learning resources distributed via the internet and video resources are also considered important.

The next category, instructional organisation of learning, contains software and technology tools supporting lectures, course management systems and computer-based testing systems. First, educational software and technology equipment are needed to assist in face-to-face lectures such as the teaching and learning software mentioned above. The tools supporting lectures in class comprise LCD projectors, computers, speakers, over-head projectors, and so on. Another application of ICTs in instructional organisation of learning is course management systems (e.g. DOKEOS, Moodle, WebCT). Course management systems are sometimes called learning management systems, e-learning systems, content management systems, or learning support systems. Third, computer-based testing systems such as Maplesoft T.A. and Hot Potatoes are applied in the instructional organisation of learning.

Table 1 The applications of ICTs in this study
Categories	The applications of ICTs
Learning resources	· Educational software · Distributed resources via the internet · Video resources
Instructional organisation of learning	· Software and technology tools supporting face-to-face lectures · Course management system · Computer-based testing system
Communication	· E-mail system · Websites offering communication options for the direct sending for e-mail and forms of structured communication · Software system for text-based chat

(Collis & Moonen, 2001)

ICT is also utilised to promote communication. The use of ICTs in this domain consists of e-mail systems and websites which offer variable communication options and software systems for text-based chat and other forms of communication.

In its broadest meaning, ICT embraces many forms of technology, and a limitation of this research is that it only explores ICT in terms of internet, software, multimedia resources, course management system and computer-based testing systems. The applications of ICTs are categorised into three groups relating to three vital factors of the education process: learning, teaching and communicating (student-student and student-teacher).

Cognitive Constructivist and Sociocultural Perspectives

A Cognitive constructivist perspective represents an explanation of cognition of human beings. According to Piaget, knowing involves constructing and reconstructing knowledge. To know also means to produce in thought. The cognition process is the optimizing equilibration which brings us from equilibrium to new equilibrium (Bettencourt, 1993). This process may result in confirming or changing existing knowledge. Piaget stated that schemes (concepts, models, or patterns) were created by assimilation and accommodation.

When confronting experience, human beings tend to judge the schemes, ignore the differences, assimilate and bring them under a category. Then the schemes become assimilations. When the assimilations are made, they are used many times. Three consequences of the repeated assimilations are the generalization and flexibility of the schemes, the integration of different schemes, and problems.

When the problems appear, human beings start to notice the differences and make consequent perturbations in cognitive activities. Based on concepts, models and patterns, they generate new solutions repeatedly until the new schemes give expected results. In this way, the schemes have been accommodated. Piaget stated that assimilation and accommodation, which led to a new equilibrium of knowledge, were two opposite poles of interaction between human beings and their environment in learning processes.

From a sociocultural perspective, learning occurs in a social context (Tobin & Tippins, 1993). Individuals construct their understandings in social settings. The foci of sociocultural views are that learning occurs in a social and cultural context; and knowledge or cognition is distributed over the social context, both inside and outside individuals (Bell, 2005). Learning is facilitated by mediational tools (artefacts), such as signs, diagrams, language, experimental equipment, technical tools and technology (Daniels, 2008). The artefacts are powerful tools to enhance learning processes, and may direct thinking and shape actions. The tools help students to interact with the social settings and co-construct their knowledge.

Social interaction between learner-learner and between learner-teacher plays an important role in the learning process. Students should be provided with a supportive, open and interactive environment which helps them discover knowledge. This learning environment facilitates learners to generate as many of their own hypotheses, models and ideas as possible, including both affirmative and contradictory positions. Moreover, the learning environment encourages students to present, discuss, negotiate their points of view with community, test their hypotheses, models or their possibilities, and determine viable knowledge.

TPCK Model

A model which appears popular for integrating ICT in education is the Technology Pedagogy Content Knowledge (TPCK) Model. The TPCK Model (Mishra & Koehler, 2006) describes the inter-relationships between content, pedagogy and technology, and then emphasises the importance of the integration of the three areas in developing effective teaching for learning.

Knowledge of content (C) in the model is an understanding about subject matter (Shulman, 1986). Teachers must be knowledgeable about the field of teaching, including facts, concepts, principles, theories, procedures and the structure of knowledge in their disciplines. Pedagogical knowledge (P) is knowledge about teaching and learning. Teachers also need to know the nature of learning; for example, how students construct knowledge and what a cognition process is. Methods of teaching, student assessment, instructional design and classroom management are also elements of pedagogical knowledge. Technology knowledge (T) involves the awareness of and skills in operating and applying technologies such as computer software, the internet and LCD projectors.

Pedagogical content knowledge exists in the intersection of content and pedagogy, and is the knowledge about teaching specific subject matter (Shulman, 1986). It is concerned with the arrangement of content, the representation and formulation of the subject, the analogies and demonstration of ideas in easily comprehensible ways for learners. Technological content knowledge associates with the application of technology in teaching about subject matter. An example of technological content knowledge is the understanding of statistical computer software (e.g. Stata, R, and SPSS) and their applications into the subject matter statistics. Technological pedagogical knowledge, an overlapped area between the technology and pedagogy circles, refers to abilities of using technology in a way that supports the pedagogical approach. An understanding about existing technologies such as MS PowerPoint, digital cameras, and WebCT as well as the capabilities of utilising them in teaching is illustrative of technological pedagogical knowledge.

Figure 1 Pedagogical Technological Content Knowledge (Mishra & Koehler, 2006, p. 1025)

As illustrated in Figure 1, in the centre of the model, technological pedagogical content knowledge, an emerged form of knowledge, is essential for successful application of ICT in teaching (Mishra & Koehler, 2006) and is the focus of this study. It is the integration of teachers’ understanding about the subject, knowledge about teaching and learning, and the ability of using technologies. Thus, technological pedagogical content knowledge is the knowledge of how to teach the content of subject matter using technology in a way that facilitates learning.

The TPCK Model is a valuable theoretical conceptual framework for teacher preparation and teacher professional development. The framework implies that the balance of technology, pedagogy and content knowledge are essential for success in effective teaching for learning.