Designing multimedia learning application with learning theories: A case study on a computer science subject with 2-D and 3-D animated versions

Animation in computer-based instruction holds powerful instructional potential. Instructional animation is used in computer-based instruction to accomplish one of three functions: attention-gaining, presentation and practice (Rieber, 1990). According to Park and Hopkins (1993), animation in visual display fulfils five instructional roles: as an attention guide; as an aid for illustrating functional or procedural behaviour: as a representation of domain knowledge entailing movement; as a device model for forming a mental image of system functions which are not directly observable; and as a visual analogy or reasoning anchor for understanding abstract concepts. Computer graphic technology including innovative capabilities previously unavailable through printed text or still pictures is strategically applied in instruction with rationales. It is presenting new challenges to traditional educational practice. Three major rationales to employ animation in computer-based instruction are as discussed below:

i. Representation of Movement

Animation, like other instructional visuals, should facilitate recall and retention when it illustrates visually-based or spatially-based facts or concepts which are related with movements. Animated graphics are probably much better than static graphics at representing ideas which involve changes over time because of its ability to implement motion, therefore concretising abstract temporal ideas (Rieber and Kini, 1991). If a learning task only requires learners to visualise fixed objects, then the use of static visuals would be sufficient. However, if the learning task requires the dynamic process, a situation in which an element is changing or evolving over time, it is better illustrated through animated visuals.

Most research supporting animated visuals in computer-based instruction were interested in the effects of animation on the learning of dynamic concepts instead of static concepts (Chanlin and Chan, 1996; Mayer, 1994, 1997; Mayer and Anderson, 1994; Mayer and Sims, 1994). Reiber et al. (1990) found positive effects of animated graphics on the learning of Newton's Law of Motion. Mayer (1997) on the other hand, utilised animation to depict causal relationship of the scientific system such as how a bicycle tire pump works; how a braking system works; or how a human respiratory system works. Accordingly, animated graphics is well applied to learn dynamic abstract concepts that are difficult to visualize (Riaza and Halimah, 2009; 2011).

ii. Interaction between Students and Computers

Some traditional visual aids, such as film and videotapes are available to show the motion and dynamic processes. But in many of these film and videotapes, the illustrations are separated by some period of time while students are watching them. Students are not likely able to absorb and process the learning material while sitting in a darkened room and it does not help the learning process (Epstein, 1990). Thus, it would be an advantage if students have at their disposal the visual illustration. It would also be an advantage if students could control the pace and sequence of learning, and interact with the computers. Computers have the unprecedented capability of allowing students to interact with visual illustrations.

Interactive learning takes place in a learning situation where a learner and computer are actively and mutually responding to input/output and adapting to responses (Jonassen, 1999). There are three levels of interactivity according to the way in which users interact with computers (Lucas, 1992). The 'reactive' model which is the lowest level of interactivity draws on behaviourist approach and simply refers to physically pressing the space bar to advance to the next step of program. The 'proactive' model which is based on a cognitive approach is the highest level of interactivity in which the learner is actively engaged in knowledge construction. Recent computer technology enables the instructional designers to develop computer-based or multimedia instructions with proactive model of interactivity. The model between reactive and proactive models is an 'interactive' model, in which the users can branch through the instruction depending on their inputs. They control the sequence of learning program. The animated graphics which are applied in computer-based instructions, involve the proactive model of interactivity, such as those in simulation or interactive 3-dimensional graphics in virtual reality technology.

iii. Attention-guide

According to Rieber (2004), Attention involves cognitive decisions regarding which information to attend to, given the fact that the environment contains far more information than any one person can handle at any given time. Interesting pictures gain and maintain learner's attention in instructional text (Keller and Burkman, 1994). Good pictures motivate learners and encourage curiosity. Pictures including novelty and drama maintain learner's attention (Keller and Burkman, 1994). In this sense, learners can be attracted to animated visuals that include dramatic and unique effects.

One of the important roles of animation as an instructional tool is gaining students' attention (Park and Hopkins, 1993; Rieber, 1991). Gagne, Briggs and Wager (1992) described attention as the first event of instruction. Attention correlates with students' achievement more highly than the time-to-learn and poor learners have poor attention (Mayer and Wittrock, 1996). The presentation of highly visual material is an effective teaching technique for arousing and sustaining student's attention (Hativa and Reingold, 1987).

Attention-gaining is an obvious, practical and rational use of animation. Rapidly changing visuals can be displayed on a computer screen to grab students' attention, such as cartoon figures, screen washes, and moving objects reinforcing the learning content. However, indiscriminate use of animation in computer-based instruction may hinder its positive effects on learning. Students' selective attention to animation is affected by instructional design method (Reiber, 1991). Only well-designed animation directing a selective attention can be an efficient aid to learning compared to static graphics.

4.1 Animation in Computer Science Education

There have been many literatures on the use of animations in computer science related subjects in the past years. The intuition of computer scientists has led many to believe that animations must provide a learning benefit, but prior experimental studies dating back to the early 90s have provided mixed results.

A study on computer algorithms and data structure examined students learning about the algorithm by reading only a textual explanation and students learning about the algorithm using the text and interacting with an animation of the algorithm (Stasko et al., 1993). Each group had an identical amount of time to study the algorithm, which was followed by a post-test including a variety of questions about the algorithm. The post-test was mostly questions about the procedural, methodological operations of the pairing heap, but it included a few concept-oriented questions as well. There was no significant difference in the two groups' performances on the post-test, but the trend favored the animation group.

Grissom, McNally, and Naps (2003) conducted research to measure the effect of varying levels of student engagement with algorithm visualisation to learn simple sorting algorithms. The three levels of engagement studied were: not seeing any visualisation; viewing visualisation for a short period in the classroom; and interacting directly with the visualisations for an extended period outside of the classroom. Results of their study revealed that algorithm visualisation has a bigger impact on learning when students go beyond merely viewing visualisation and are required to engage in additional activities structured around the visualisation. The researchers also state that it is important that visualisations used by students be consistent with algorithms in their textbooks, or else the visualisations may serve more to confuse them than to aid them.

English and Rainwater (2006) studied the instructional effectiveness of using animations to teach 32 learning objectives in an undergraduate operating systems course. The animations were created using Macromedia FlashTM and were employed as primary pedagogical tools during classroom instruction. In general, descriptions and diagrams served as the basis for reproduction in animated form. The animations were viewed in class by students, as presented as part of the lecture by the instructor at the appropriate point in class when the learning unit was discussed. Pretest scores were obtained by administering the pretest at the beginning of the semester. Posttest scores were acquired by selective inclusion of questions in regular examinations as pertinent to material covered in class. Findings of this study parallels previous research studies which indicate that animations are not effective in conveying information for all learning objectives; i.e. some learning objectives, especially those that are less procedural and more conceptual, are more difficult for students to learn from animation. A closer look at the learning objectives which profited from animation in this study reveals that animations were more beneficial in the sub-topics of processes, memory management and virtual memory. Animations which were designed for these units were generally procedural in structure (English and Rainwater, 2006).

In a study on impact assessment of a microprocessor animation on student learning and motivation (Ferens et al., 2007), the custom animation software was designed to teach second and third year computer engineering students in the microprocessing systems course at the University of Manitoba, Canada. The authors, with over the span of 13 years experience teaching the course, the difficulties and limitations with conventional lectures and visual aids led to the development of custom animation of the course material to provide an additional teaching modality to teach the complex and abstract subject matter more effectively. The animations software consists of the ability to create and/or modify microinstructions, create and/or modify macroinstructions, and animate the execution of instructions (using 'water-flowing through pipes' analogy) by showing address and data transmission juxtaposed against an animated clock. A postunit, mixed method survey was administered to students to reveal cognitive gains and motivational outcomes. Apparently, the use of animation, especially the 'water flowing through pipes' feature was shown to be a powerful component of the animation, and provides an element of visual learning that many students are finding to be critical in their ability to understand. The study also reported on substantial cognitive gains and modest motivational outcomes, reinforcing the animations' effectiveness yet again.

In the use of 3-Dimensional animation, Korakakis et al. (2009) studied the specific types of visualization (3D illustrated, 3D animation and interactive 3D animation) contributed to learning. The results indicated that multimedia applications with interactive 3D animations as well as with 3D animations do in fact increase the interest of students and make the material more appealing to them.
?In summary, it can be stated that animation has mostly enhanced learning rather than detrimental to learning. In this case, the use of animation in computer science subjects have resulted with mixed results in terms of student understanding and performances, but it has mostly enhanced and improved learning. The difficult topics in some computer science subjects were visualised using animations which brought some cognitive gains as well as contributed to some motivational factors to students.