 |
Asia-Pacific Forum
on Science Learning and Teaching, Volume 10, Issue 2, Article12 (Dec., 2009) |
Proposed instructional design model for teaching NOS
The results of the literature review on instructional design models provided important points while selecting appropriate initial instructional framework (Isman et al., 2005; Dick, Carey & Carey, 2005; Morrisson, Kemp & Ross, 2004; Keller, 1987; Schunk, 2004; Wongwiwatthananukit & Popowich, 2000). The instructional design model presented here is based on Dick and Carey’s (2004) model including assessment, design, development, implementation and evaluation (ADDIE). The model has focused on instruction from a systematic approach in which all of the instructional factors including evaluation, objectives, students, etc. are considered as components of the same system and they impact each other. In addition, the Dick and Carey Model provides standardization of the instruction in a task specific manner and takes into account behaviorist, cognitivist and constructivist approaches (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2005). The model describes instruction as a systematic process including balancing all components such as the teacher, materials, students and learning environment to provide successful learning. In the model, a system is defined as set of interrelated parts working together to reach a defined goal, and the whole system uses feedback to determine whether the desired goal has been reached (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2005).
In the literature, an example of successful integration of the Dick and Carey Model in biology learning context have been provided (Bozdin & Park, 1999). A requirement of deliberate or explicit control of all components of a system of instruction gives the model an important place in teaching NOS and biology content knowledge in the same system. The Dick and Carey Model has provided an important systematic model to consider both NOS aspects and biology content knowledge. In NOS teaching, since both content and NOS aspects should be taught together, there is a need to consider two separate focuses in spite of their embedded relationship. Therefore, NOS teaching is different than basic content teaching processes in terms of instructional design. The Dick and Carey model has flexibility to adapt to nature of science teaching purposes. The Dick and Carey model can be seen in the figure 1.
Figure 1. The Dick and Carey systematic instructional design model (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2005)
As seen in the model, there is an iterative process to develop instruction, and the components of the model are interrelated and have equal importance for reaching instructional goals. Using the Dick and Carey Model as a framework, the following instructional design model for NOS teaching in a biology unit was constructed by considering explicitness, reflection, embedding and two knowledge types.
Figure 2.The proposed instructional design model for the nature of science teaching (NOS instructional design model)
The first component, identifying instructional goals includes expectations about outcomes after instruction. In the Dick and Carey model, assessment is necessary for performance analysis, students’ learning experiences during the unit and analysis of students when they first learn about the unit. In addition, requirements of the new instruction should be considered by investigation the assessment results to set goals for the instruction (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2005). Pre-determined curricular arrangements drive goals set in school environments. The proposed model requires three important points in goal setting procedure. When creating goals, they should be based on both biology content knowledge and NOS knowledge under the scientific literacy construct. Secondly, “the classification and elaboration of the goals for the content and the NOS aspects” phase emphasizes explicit intention to teach NOS as an important instructional goal while teaching biology content knowledge. To provide such a distinction, instructors should classify the goals as biology content knowledge goals and NOS teaching goals. Then, there is a need to provide common instruction between biology content knowledge and the NOS aspects. In this situation, the purpose is to balance any pre-dominancy of the instructional content by elaborating on the goals of balanced instruction. The other two phases, which require the analyses on entry components of the instruction, are analyzing learners, embedding context and study context and conducting instructional analysis. The phase of conducting instructional analysis has sought an answer to the question of “what entry behaviors including skills, attitudes and knowledge are required of student to begin the instruction?” while the phase of analyzing learners, embedding context and study context has tried to answer the question of “how are the instructional setting, embedding context for desired NOS aspects and learners’ current understandings of both the biology content and NOS?”. After the pre-analysis of the learner, contexts and pre-requisite entry behaviors for the instruction, specific statements about biology content knowledge and NOS can be written based on the results of analyses. The phase of writing performance objectives is a synthesis phase to set objectives using the evidence provided by previous analyses. Similarly to the classification and elaboration of the goals for the content and the NOS aspects phase, the instructor should classify the specific objectives on both NOS and biology content and should elaborate on them to provide balanced instruction for both subjects in the phase of classification and elaboration of the performance objectives for the content and NOS aspects. In the next phase, developing assessment instruments, is based on the objectives determined in the previous phase of the design. In this phase, there is a need to develop ,at least, three assessment instruments for biology content, NOS content and scientific literacy. Then, two parallel phases of instructional strategy development surface. These are developing instructional strategy for biology content and developing instructional strategy for the NOS aspects. In these phases, the components that facilitate learning biology content and NOS are emphasized. In line with this purpose, pre-instructional activities, explicitly presentation of the content of NOS or presentation of biology content, embedded strategy (determining order of the contents and the part of biology content in which NOS aspects will be embedded), determination of mode of learner participation (group or individual), assessment and other related activities are prepared by considering learning theories and educational research findings. In the following phase, developing and selecting instructional materials for both instructional strategies, the instructor should decide on instructional materials by taking into account type of learning outcome (cognitive, affective or psycho-motor), availability of relevant materials, content differences of instructional process (NOS and biology content knowledge). In addition, the criteria for selection of materials should be determined. The phase of designing and conducting formative evaluation has provided feedback for the improvement of instruction and the instructor will have received different types of information about instruction for future. The Dick and Carey model has been suggesting three types of formative evaluation: one-to-one evaluation, small-group evaluation and field-trial evaluation (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2005). Based on the data coming from formative evaluation, the phase of revising instruction is conducted to improve efficacy of instruction. Revising activity is directly related to all components of the system and is key to coherence between the components. The other evaluation attempt in the model is designing and conducting summative evaluation. Dick, Carey and Carey (2005) regarded this evaluation phase as a separate evaluation that is not a part of the instructional design process. The summative evaluation has required an independent evaluator. The final phase of conducting evaluation of scientific literacy levels, is an important part for NOS instruction, since informed decision making and becoming an empowered citizen are indicators of scientific literacy. Scientific literacy includes knowledge about NOS as a component to gain these abilities (Uno & Bybee, 1994; Damastes& Wandersee, 1992). Therefore, evaluation of scientific literacy should be an important part in any instructional attempt to teach NOS. A panel of experts provided their opinions according to the proposed model.
